Developments in Quantum Science and Opportunities for Military Use

 Military Aspirations Concerning Quantum Science

Revolutions in quantum science have generated military abilities in two waves of revolution:

1. Quantum revolution generated technologies that enable nuclear power, semiconductors, lasers, magnetic resonance imaging and other imaging technologies.

2. Quantum revolution focuses on controlling individual quantum systems (atoms, electrons, photons, quasiparticles). Most of these dual-use technologies aim to improve measurement capability, sensing, precision, and computation performance. (Dowling & Milburn, 2003)

The USA launched National Quantum Initiative 2018, and U.S. DoD has joined the programme to “better enable the United States to maintain its global leadership in quantum information science” and “by supporting existing efforts and accelerating critical growth in the field.” (Gould, 2021)

“The quantum world hosts a rich variety of physics that could enable functionality far beyond what traditional technologies can achieve,” the National Security Agency said in a press release. “By probing and manipulating phenomena that occur at the single particle scale, the emerging field of quantum information science (QIS) aims to create new forms of computing, sensing and communications that could revolutionise how we process and transmit data.” (Harper, 2020)

• In the near term, super-accurate clocks and quantum-based sensors could aid with precision navigation and timing, which is critical for military missions.

• In the future, U.S. forces might have to operate in GPS-denied environments, and Pentagon officials are looking for alternatives to space-enabled navigation.

• Quantum computing is information compression and subsequent acceleration, allowing computers to simultaneously process seemingly infinite possibilities. 

• Experts are also eyeing quantum communications for defensive and offensive purposes. (Sayler, 2021)

In 2016, Beijing initiated an effort to achieve a quantum technology breakthrough by 2030. The planned US$10-billion National Laboratory for Quantum Information Sciences in Hefei, Anhui province, leads the nation’s drive for quantum computing and sensing. (IISS, 2019) 

The United Kingdom’s Defence Science Expert Committee has noted the importance of improved gravity sensors (quantum gravimeters), which could detect moving masses underwater, such as in submarines. (IISS, 2019)

Russia is also investing in quantum computing at the Russian Quantum Center, but it has not committed the same level of resources as other nations and remains behind China and the U.S. (IISS, 2019)

Figure 1: Announced public sector investments in Quantum computing (McKinsey) (McKinsey, 2021)

Some Interesting Applications and Proceedings of Quantum Science

Quantum computing refers to the utilisation of quantum information science to perform computations. Such a machine can be called a quantum computer, for example: (Krelina, 2021) 

• A digital quantum computer is universal, programmable and should perform all possible quantum algorithms. On the other hand, classical computers can fully simulate the gate-level-based quantum computer. The difference is in resources and speed. For instance, the simulation of thoroughly entangled qubits increases the requirement of classical resources exponentially. 
• Analogue quantum computer (Hamiltonian computation) typically uses quantum annealing. Quantum annealer differs from the digital quantum computer by the limited connectivity of qubits and different principles. Therefore, the utilisation of analogue quantum computers is more constrained but is still suitable for tasks such as quantum optimisations or Hamiltonian-based simulations. 
• A Quantum simulator is used to study and simulate other quantum systems that generally are less accessible and is usually built as a single-purpose machine. The quantum simulator can be imagined as a non-programmable quantum circuit compared to a quantum computer.

Digital quantum computing has seen a fast evolution of:

• 2023 IBM aims for 1121 qubits computer
• 2022 IBM promotes their new z16 machine’s ability to handle real-time fraud detection for instant payments across the financial sector. (Saran, 2022)
• 2021 IBM Eagle processor with 127 qubits (Rincon, 2021)
• 2020 IBM Hummingbird with 65 qubits; Chinese superconducting processor with 56 qubits (Johnston, 2021)
• 2019 Google Sycamore with 53 cubits; IBM Falcon with 27 qubits (van Amerongen, 2021)
• 2016 IBM provided quantum computer as a service through their cloud (QCaaS)

In Quantum simulation, Siemens aims to use proprietary quantum methods to solve complex non-linear differential equations. These will be used in Siemens’ computer-aided product design and testing software in digital-twin simulations to support clients in the automotive, electronics, energy, and aerospace sectors. (Saran, Siemens looks at quantum computing to accelerate simulations, 2022)

Quantum optimisation generates two outcomes: quantum-inspired algorithms and speeding up the classical heuristic optimisation process. Typical optimisation applications may be found in logistics, supply chains, traffic, and targeting.

Quantum-enhanced machine learning breakthroughs are waiting for quantum memory and quantum coding of data. However, earlier benefits may be gained from quantum sensing and imaging and ML applied to generated quantum data.

Quantum cryptoanalysis has algorithms ready but lacks computing performance. Shor’s algorithm can exponentially speed up the factorisation of large prime numbers used in RSA, D.H. and ECC. Grover’s searching algorithm reduces the brute-force time by half. Around 2128 quantum operations may be required to brute-force the 256-bit AES key. A regular computer takes around 70 years to break AES 256 encryption. (Allison, 2018)

Quantum communications use low-loss optical fibre or free-space channels (most realistic between satellites) and photons to transfer information. However, a network requires several repeaters or switches because of fragile photon transmission. 

Quantum key distribution (QKD) exchanges private keys over a separate connection and is encrypted at a photonic level. The encryption key is generated using a pair of entangled photons so the possible interception will be detected before the transmission even happens. The method extends the use of average prime numbers for mass encryption since the key is transferred separately and more securely. Naturally, a denial-of-service attack will suppress the whole key exchange and message transfer system. (Allison, 2018) In 2016, China launched the quantum science satellite “Micius”, which claims to demonstrate ground-satellite-ground QKD. (IISS, 2019)

Quantum sensing and metrology is the most mature area of quantum technology. Quantum sensors can produce precise information about electrical signal, magnetic anomalies and inertial navigation.

Quantum clocks are based on single-ion providing uncertainty below 10 -18, whereas current atomic clocks commonly provide around 2x10 -12 uncertainty.

Quantum navigation operates via a process called atom interferometry. If you cool atoms to just millionths of a degree above absolute zero, then hit them with beams of light, you can trick them into a quantum superposition. Each atom takes on two states simultaneously: moving and still. Each state reacts differently to forces, including gravity and acceleration. That allows you to measure things like distance more accurately than GPS—without needing a hackable signal from space. “These inertial sensors can be used wherever there is a need for a position or navigational information, and where a GPS outage is unacceptable, or GPS is unavailable.” (Tucker, 2021)

Quantum imaging systems exploit photon correlations allowing better noise suppression and higher resolution. Applications include quantum radar, lidar, quantum 3D, behind-the-corner, low-brightness, and medical imaging. 

Status of Quantum Science from a Military Viewpoint

China, E.U., and the U.S., among other states, are expecting a lot from research and development around quantum physics applications. From a military viewpoint, the application situation looks, for example: (Parker, 2021)

• Quantum key distribution is mature and provides an untampered way of transferring sensitive encryption keys over fibre
• Quantum clocks are tiny and accurate to provide much better accuracy than previous atom-clocks
• Quantum sensors are more sensitive than conventional ones, although quantum radar application did not meet the DoD expectations in 2021.  
• Quantum computing is advancing with speed – the problem is the programs. Currently, the most feasible applications are certified randomness, scheduling optimisation, route and fleet optimisation and site-selection optimisation. (McKinsey, 2021) Nevertheless, states are extracting or capturing encrypted data today to decrypt them in the future. (Vincent, 2021)
• Quantum communications are in the prototype and demonstration phase, particularly in China. (IISS, 2019)

Bibliography

Allison, P. R. (2018). Prepare now for quantum computers, QKD and post-quantum encryption. Computer Weekly. Retrieved from https://www.computerweekly.com/feature/Prepare-now-for-quantum-computers-QKD-and-post-quantum-encryption

Dowling, J. P., & Milburn, G. J. (2003). Quantum technology: the second quantum revolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. doi:https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2003.1227

Gould, J. (2021). Senators push quantum computing at DoD. C4ISRNET. Retrieved from https://www.c4isrnet.com/congress/2021/04/16/senators-push-quantum-computing-at-dod/

Harper, J. (2020). Pentagon Trying to Manage Quantum Science Hype. National Defense. Retrieved from https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2020/12/10/pentagon-trying-to-manage-quantum-science-hype

IISS. (2019). Quantum computing and defence. In IISS, The Military Balance 2019 (pp. 18-20). Retrieved from https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019/quantum-computing-and-defence

Johnston, H. (2021). Quantum advantage takes a giant leap in optical and superconducting systems. Physics World. Retrieved from https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-advantage-takes-a-giant-leap-in-optical-and-superconducting-systems/

Krelina, M. (2021). Quantum technology for military. EPJ Quantum Technology. doi:https://doi.org/10.1140/epjqt/s40507-021-00113-y

Parker, E. (2021). Commercial and Military Applications and Timelines for Quantum Technology. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

Rincon, P. (2021). IBM claims advance in quantum computing. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-59320073

Sayler, K. M. (2021). Defence Primer: Quantum Technology. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from https://news.usni.org/2021/05/27/report-on-military-applications-for-quantum-computing

Tucker, P. (2021). Quantum Sensor Breakthrough Paves Way For GPS-Free Navigation. Defence One. Retrieved from https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2021/11/quantum-sensor-breakthrough-paves-way-gps-free-navigation/186578/

van Amerongen, M. (2021). Quantum technologies in defence & security. NATO Review. Retrieved from https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2021/06/03/quantum-technologies-in-defence-security/index.html

Vincent, B. (2021). China May Steal Encrypted Data Now to Decrypt In Years to Come, Report Warns. Defence One. Retrieved from https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2021/11/report-china-may-steal-encrypted-government-data-now-decrypt-quantum-computers-later/187025/